Understanding Religious Extremism: A Multidisciplinary View
Written by Elisa Garbil – 10.07.2025
Religious extremism is often portrayed in stark and simplistic terms, dangerous, irrational, and rooted in blind faith. But research from philosophers, psychologists, and international organisations paints a more nuanced picture. It reveals that extremism isn’t solely about belief systems; it’s about identity, psychological vulnerabilities, and the socio-political environments in which people live. Listen to Rik Peels discuss religious extremism.
What Drives Religious Extremism?
Religious extremism is often assumed to result from irrationality or mental instability, but recent academic research challenges this idea. In a 2023 article in Terrorism and Political Violence, Rik Peels and colleagues argue that certain personality traits, such as dogmatism, closed-mindedness, vengefulness, and intellectual overconfidence, play significant roles in shaping extreme beliefs (Peels et al., 2023). These traits, while not inherently pathological, can make individuals more susceptible to black-and-white thinking and inflexible worldviews.
However, character alone doesn’t tell the whole story. In his interview with Imperfect Cognitions, Peels discusses the “situationist challenge”, the idea that situational factors, such as social upheaval, insecurity, and perceived injustice, can drive even psychologically healthy individuals toward extremism. Radicalisation can thus be seen as a context-sensitive process rather than a trait-driven inevitability.
This broader perspective suggests that anyone can be vulnerable to extremist thinking under the right conditions. It’s a reminder that addressing extremism requires more than identifying “bad actors”, we need to understand the systems and pressures that influence belief.
Beyond Extremism: Understanding Fundamentalism and Conspiracism
Peels and his colleagues also emphasise the importance of distinguishing between extremism, fundamentalism, and conspiracism, which, while interconnected, have different structures and causes.
In their book Extreme Beliefs: The Epistemology and Ethics of Fundamentalism (Springer, 2023), they argue that fundamentalism is not necessarily irrational. Instead, it arises from epistemic systems that emphasise absolute truth, scriptural inerrancy, and moral clarity. While these views can contribute to extremism, they don’t always lead to violence or intolerance. Indeed, many fundamentalists live peacefully within pluralistic societies.
Conspiracism, on the other hand, often acts as a psychological coping mechanism. It helps people make sense of complex events by attributing blame to hidden, malevolent forces. This offers emotional security and identity reinforcement, especially in times of crisis. As Vice Versa Global notes, conspiracies and religious fundamentalism often provide an existential anchor for people who feel marginalised or confused by rapid social change.
By recognising these distinctions, policymakers and educators can better address the underlying needs that drive people toward radical ideologies—needs for certainty, meaning, and community.
Global Trends and Manifestations
Religious extremism manifests differently around the world. Although often associated with Islamist militancy, extremism spans religious traditions and political contexts.
In the United States, Christian nationalism has gained prominence through movements like QAnon, which blend apocalyptic theology with political conspiracy theories. A 2021 Politico article noted how religious symbols and rhetoric were central to the January 6 Capitol riot. These events demonstrated that Christian extremism can be as politically motivated and dangerous as other forms of radicalism.
In Southeast Asia, particularly Singapore, authorities have raised concerns about the rise of violent Christian extremism. According to an RSIS analysis, fringe groups have exploited online spaces to spread radical ideology, threatening inter-religious harmony. These developments challenge the stereotype that religious violence is exclusive to Islam and highlight the need for broader, interfaith vigilance.
Across Europe, the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the growth of far-right Christian fundamentalist movements. As trust in institutions waned, many turned to radical online communities. These groups often fused religious belief with anti-government sentiment, creating fertile ground for extremism. The Dutch case studies cited in Terrorism and Political Violence illustrate how a blend of religious certainty and populist rhetoric can lead to violent outcomes.
Defusing Extremism: What Works?
Combatting religious extremism requires more than military or police action. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) advocates a preventative, community-based approach. Their initiatives focus on:
- Engaging religious leaders to promote interpretations of sacred texts that emphasise peace, tolerance, and coexistence.
- Training educators to foster critical thinking, emotional intelligence, and empathy in students.
- Empowering youth and civil society to build resilient communities that resist radicalisation.
These strategies align with observations from Global Briefing, which stress that existential and emotional needs must be addressed. If mainstream society fails to offer belonging, purpose, or moral clarity, extremist ideologies will fill the void. The appeal of extremism, then, is not just intellectual—it’s profoundly emotional.
Education, particularly values-based education, has proven to be a powerful tool in resisting radicalisation. According to SAGE Publications, integrating ethics, critical reflection, and interreligious dialogue into curricula can significantly reduce susceptibility to extremist narratives.
Rethinking the Problem: A Multidisciplinary Paradigm
Ultimately, as Peels and others argue, understanding and responding to religious extremism demands a multidisciplinary paradigm. Philosophy, theology, psychology, sociology, and political science must work in concert to uncover not just what extremists believe—but why they believe it, and under what conditions.
This approach also reorients counter-extremism efforts away from blaming particular faiths or communities. Instead, it highlights the common human needs—for identity, certainty, purpose—that extremist ideologies exploit. As Vice Versa Global points out, addressing these needs through inclusive, empathetic, and culturally sensitive means is critical to long-term peacebuilding.
Final Thoughts
Religious extremism is not an isolated phenomenon. It’s a complex web of belief, emotion, identity, and social context. Simplistic narratives, whether they demonise or excuse, fail to capture its depth. As recent research shows, the roots of extremism run deep, but they can be understood, and ultimately, defused.
